Three Gorges Dam
EnergyThe world's largest hydropower station by installed capacity, at 22.5 GW, and the main flood-control structure on the Yangtze.
Yichang, Hubei
Overview
Overview
Antarctica at a glance
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands or an area of ocean. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century, but generally the area saw little human activity. Following World War II, however, the continent experienced an upsurge in scientific research. …
National Infrastructure
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s critical and strategic infrastructure, sustaining output, agility and endurance
The National Infrastructure Index maps the physical assets national life runs on — power stations and grids, water systems, ports, railways and airports, data networks, payment systems and launch sites. Each asset is placed in a Strategic Infrastructure capability group, so it can be read against the ratings in the National Capability index above.
Assets are chosen for how much of the economy and state depends on them and how hard they would be to replace. Each card records what the asset is, the category it belongs to, what it does and where it is.
Placeholder
Example assets. These twenty cards are modelled on China's most critical infrastructure and show on every nation page until each nation's own assets are mapped.
EnergyWater, Sanitation & WasteTransportCommunications & DigitalFinancialSpace, Aerospace & DefenceResourceAgriculture & FoodAdvanced Manufacturing
Critical infrastructure assetsBack to top ↑
Baihetan Hydropower Station
EnergyA 16 GW dam on the Jinsha River, built around sixteen 1 GW turbines, the largest single units in service.
Qiaojia, Yunnan
Changji–Guquan UHVDC Line
EnergyA ±1,100 kV direct-current line carrying 12 GW more than 3,000 km from Xinjiang's power bases to the eastern grid.
Changji, Xinjiang
Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station
EnergyChina's first large commercial nuclear plant, in service since 1994, with much of its output sold to Hong Kong.
Shenzhen, Guangdong
South–North Water Transfer, Middle Route
Water, Sanitation & WasteA canal carrying Yangtze basin water more than 1,400 km north from the Danjiangkou Reservoir to Beijing and Tianjin.
Danjiangkou, Hubei
Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway
TransportThe 1,318 km trunk line between the two largest cities, opened in 2011 and one of the busiest high-speed routes in the world.
Beijing
Port of Shanghai
TransportThe world's busiest container port since 2010, including the automated Yangshan deep-water terminals.
Shanghai
Ningbo-Zhoushan Port
TransportThe world's largest port by cargo tonnage, handling iron ore, crude oil and coal for the eastern industrial belt.
Ningbo, Zhejiang
Beijing Daxing International Airport
TransportThe capital's second international hub, opened in 2019 around one of the largest single terminal buildings in the world.
Beijing
Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge
TransportA 55 km bridge and undersea tunnel system linking the western and eastern shores of the Pearl River Delta, opened in 2018.
Zhuhai, Guangdong
Qinghai–Tibet Railway
TransportThe 1,956 km line from Xining to Lhasa, crossing the Tanggula Pass at 5,072 m, the highest railway in the world.
Lhasa, Tibet
Gui'an National Computing Hub
Communications & DigitalOne of eight national data centre hubs under the East Data, West Computing programme, hosting major cloud providers.
Guiyang, Guizhou
Beijing–Shanghai Quantum Backbone
Communications & DigitalA 2,000 km quantum key distribution trunk line through Jinan and Hefei, completed in 2017 for secure government and bank links.
Hefei, Anhui
Cross-Border Interbank Payment System
FinancialCIPS clears and settles cross-border payments in renminbi, launched in 2015 to extend the currency's international reach.
Shanghai
Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site
Space, Aerospace & DefenceThe coastal launch site for Long March 5 heavy-lift rockets, used for the Tiangong station modules and lunar and Mars missions.
Wenchang, Hainan
Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center
Space, Aerospace & DefenceChina's first launch site, founded in 1958 in the Gobi Desert, and the base for every crewed Shenzhou mission.
Jiuquan, Gansu
BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
Space, Aerospace & DefenceThe national satellite navigation system, providing global positioning and timing since 2020 from its Beijing control segment.
Beijing
Bayan Obo Mining District
ResourceThe world's largest known rare-earth deposit and the core of China's rare-earth mining and refining supply chain.
Baotou, Inner Mongolia
Dujiangyan Irrigation System
Agriculture & FoodA weir and channel system built around 256 BC that still irrigates much of the Chengdu Plain's farmland.
Dujiangyan, Sichuan
Yangtze Memory Technologies Fab
Advanced ManufacturingChina's leading maker of 3D NAND flash memory, central to the drive for a domestic semiconductor supply.
Wuhan, Hubei
National Developments
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s major milestones and key developments
The National Development Index tracks the events that move a nation's capability — policy decisions, technological milestones, economic turns and external shocks — and places each one on the record with the date it happened and what followed from it. It is the narrative counterpart to the indices: where a rating says where Antarctica stands, the index says how it arrived there.
Recent developments cover the current cycle, close enough that their consequences are still unfolding. Historical developments are the inflection points behind the present position — the decisions and events a reader needs in order to read the ratings above in context.
GeopoliticalTechnologyEconomyEnvironmentSociety
Historical Developments
c. 350 BCAristotle described an "Antarctic region" in his Meteorology
The Greek philosopher wrote of a southern polar region, the earliest known conceptual reference to the area. Roman authors later used the name polus antarcticus, which passed through Old French and Middle English to give the continent its eventual name.
1513Cartographers depicted the hypothetical Terra Australis on the Piri Reis map 513 years ago
Early world maps showed a great southern landmass that classical scholars assumed necessary to balance the northern hemisphere. Much larger than and unrelated to Antarctica, the notion nevertheless drove southern exploration for centuries.
1539Charles V of Spain created the Governorate of Terra Australis south of the Strait of Magellan 487 years ago
The King granted the governorate, covering lands south of the strait and hence the then-hypothetical Antarctica, to Pedro Sancho de la Hoz. It is the earliest formal European jurisdictional claim touching the continent.
1555Spanish authorities incorporated the Terra Australis claim into Chile 471 years ago
The governorate south of the Strait of Magellan was absorbed into Chile. The transfer underpins Chile's later historical arguments for Antarctic sovereignty.
1773Captain James Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle with Resolution and Adventure 253 years ago
Cook crossed the circle on 17 January 1773 and again in December 1773 and January 1774, coming within about 120 km of the coast before field ice turned him back. His voyages disproved the great Terra Australis while narrowing the search for a real polar continent.
1775James Cook judged the existence of a polar continent "probable" 251 years ago
After his southern voyages Cook wrote that he firmly believed a polar continent existed and that it was more than probable he had seen part of it. His assessment shaped nineteenth-century expectations of the far south.
1786British and American sealers became the first semi-permanent inhabitants of the sub-Antarctic 240 years ago
From 1786 sealers spent a year or more at a time on South Georgia, south of the Antarctic Convergence. Their presence began continuous human habitation of the polar region and drove heavy exploitation of the Antarctic fur seal.
1820sBritish, American and Russian expeditions began exploring the Antarctic 206 years ago
Speculation over the existence of a southern land was not confirmed until the early 1820s, when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle.
January 1820Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen recorded the first sighting of an Antarctic ice shelf 206 years ago
Leading the First Russian Antarctic Expedition with Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny, he logged an ice shelf at 69°21′S on 27 January 1820, within 32 km of Queen Maud Land. The sighting preceded Edward Bransfield's discovery of the Trinity Peninsula tip by three days.
January 1820Edward Bransfield sighted the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula 206 years ago
The Royal Navy captain recorded land, rather than shelf ice, at the Trinity Peninsula on 30 January 1820. He was long credited as the first to see Antarctica; the American sealer Nathaniel Palmer sighted the peninsula in November 1820.
February 1821John Davis made the first documented landing on Antarctica 205 years ago
The English-born American sealer apparently came ashore at Hughes Bay on 7 February 1821. Some historians dispute the claim, arguing there is no evidence he landed on the continent rather than an offshore island.
1824Colonial authorities in Sydney renamed New Holland Australia, freeing the term Terra Australis 202 years ago
Matthew Flinders had doubted a detached southern continent and pressed for Terra Australis to denote Australia. The renaming left the classical name unavailable for the polar landmass, opening the way for a new coinage.
1838–1839Charles Wilkes led a US expedition and first claimed to have discovered the continent 188 years ago
The American captain's survey led him to assert discovery of an Antarctic continent. Contemporaries such as James Clark Ross failed to grasp that the separate coasts sighted by American, French and British navigators formed one landmass.
1840Explorers established that Antarctica was a continent 186 years ago
Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands or an area of ocean.
January 1840Jules Dumont d'Urville's expedition raised the French flag and claimed sovereignty over Adélie Land 186 years ago
Crew of the 1837–1840 French expedition landed on the Dumoulin Islands off Adélie Land on 22 January 1840, collected mineral, algae and animal samples and proclaimed French sovereignty. It was among the earliest formal territorial claims in Antarctica.
January 1853Mercator Cooper landed on East Antarctica 173 years ago
The American explorer came ashore on 26 January 1853, an early landing on the eastern side of the continent. It extended knowledge of Antarctic coasts beyond the peninsula region.
1890sJohn George Bartholomew is credited with the first use of the name Antarctica 136 years ago
The Scottish cartographer's usage saw the name adopted for the continent during the 1890s. It settled a long-running nomenclature problem left over from the reassignment of Terra Australis to Australia.
1895A Norwegian-Swedish whaling crew made the first confirmed landing on the continental mass at Cape Adare 131 years ago
The ship Antarctic reached Cape Adare, giving the first undisputed landing on the Antarctic mainland. It opened the era of expeditions into the continental interior.
early 20th centuryPolar explorers achieved a series of exploration firsts 126 years ago
Several exploration firsts were achieved in the early 20th century, including Amundsen's attainment of the South Pole in 1911, but generally the area saw little human activity for decades afterwards.
1904An unknown expedition member shot the first motion-picture footage of Antarctica 122 years ago
The hand-cranked film was made during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition in early 1904. It began a documentary tradition that included South (1919) and the Oscar-winning With Byrd at the South Pole (1930).
1907Frank Wild made the first record of coal in Antarctica near the Beardmore Glacier 119 years ago
The discovery during Shackleton's Nimrod Expedition established the presence of fossil fuel deposits on the continent. Low-grade coal is now known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains, informing later debates over mineral exploitation.
1907–1909Edgeworth David's party climbed Mount Erebus and reached the south magnetic pole 119 years ago
During Shackleton's Nimrod Expedition, parties led by Edgeworth David with Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay achieved the first ascent of Mount Erebus and the first journey to the magnetic South Pole, attained in 1909. Mawson took over leadership of the magnetic pole party on its perilous return.
1908–43Seven nations made territorial claims in Antarctica 118 years ago
Between 1908 and 1943 seven countries, Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom, claimed sectors of the continent, but not all countries recognise these claims.
1908–1909Ernest Shackleton first traversed the Ross Ice Shelf and reached the south Polar Plateau 118 years ago
Between December 1908 and February 1909 Shackleton and three companions crossed the Ross Ice Shelf, ascended the Beardmore Glacier through the Transantarctic Mountains and set foot on the polar plateau. The route they pioneered became the standard approach to the pole.
December 1911Roald Amundsen became the first to reach the geographic South Pole 115 years ago
Travelling from the Bay of Whales up the Axel Heiberg Glacier, the Norwegian expedition from the ship Fram attained the pole on 14 December 1911. Scott's Terra Nova Expedition arrived a month later and perished on the return.
1912Terra Nova Expedition reached the South Pole a month after Amundsen and was doomed on return 114 years ago
The British party arrived at the geographic pole one month after the Norwegians. Its fate became the defining episode of the heroic age of Antarctic exploration.
1912An expedition member discovered the Adelie Land meteorite 114 years ago
It was the first meteorite found in Antarctica. The continent's ice sheets later became the world's richest meteorite collecting grounds.
October 1913Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen was the first child born in the southern polar region 113 years ago
The Norwegian girl was born at Grytviken, South Georgia, on 8 October 1913. Her birth reflected the establishment of settled family life at the whaling stations.
1930sRichard E. Byrd led four expeditions using the first mechanised tractors in Antarctica 96 years ago
Across the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s the American explorer conducted extensive geographical and scientific research. He is credited with surveying a larger region of the continent than any other explorer.
Recent Developments
January 2025Researchers explored the seafloor exposed by iceberg A-84 1 year ago
The detachment of a Chicago-sized iceberg from the George VI Ice Shelf allowed robotic submersibles to survey the seabed beneath a floating shelf. They found unexpectedly rich ecosystems of corals, ancient sponges, icefish, giant sea spiders and octopuses at depths to 1,300 m.
2015Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land to include territory up to the South Pole 11 years ago
Although new claims have been suspended since 1959, Norway clarified its existing claim to cover the previously unclaimed sector between Queen Maud Land and the pole. It showed how claimant states continue to consolidate positions within the treaty framework.
2014Antarctic sea ice ended a long period of increasing extent 12 years ago
Sea ice extent grew from the start of satellite observation in the late 1970s until 2014, a trend models link to ozone depletion and a strengthened polar vortex. The reversal after 2014 marked a shift in the continent's ice regime.
2012British Foreign & Commonwealth Office designated Queen Elizabeth Land, prompting Argentine protest 14 years ago
The naming of a previously unnamed area honoured Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee. Argentina, which claims overlapping territory, formally protested, illustrating the persistence of sovereignty disputes under the treaty.
2010Census of Marine Life researchers released a polar biodiversity census from the International Polar Year 16 years ago
Some 500 researchers documented Antarctic and Arctic marine life, finding more than 235 organisms present in both polar regions across a 12,000 km gap. The census established a baseline for Southern Ocean ecology.
2010Satellite observation detected an even lower surface reading of −94.7 °C 16 years ago
A satellite measurement returned −94.7 °C, below the official record. It was discounted for record purposes because it was not taken 2 m above the surface and may have reflected ground temperatures.
September 2006The ozone hole reached its largest recorded extent over the continent 20 years ago
The depleted area covered almost the whole continent at its September 2006 maximum. The longest-lasting ozone hole event was subsequently recorded in 2020.
2006Winter residents founded the Winter International Film Festival of Antarctica 20 years ago
The festival was established to combat social isolation among those wintering on the continent and is held annually. It reflects the emergence of a distinct resident culture at the research stations.
1998Treaty parties brought the Madrid Protocol on environmental protection into force 28 years ago
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty replaced the abandoned minerals convention and restricts exploitation of Antarctic resources, including minerals. It is due for review in 2048.
1996–1997Børge Ousland made the first solo coast-to-coast crossing of Antarctica 30 years ago
The Norwegian explorer crossed the continent alone in the austral summer, aided by a kite on parts of the route. He also holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, 34 days.
1994International Whaling Commission established the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary 32 years ago
The sanctuary closed the waters around Antarctica to commercial whaling. It extended protection to the seas whose whaling era had ended in 1966.
1989McMurdo Station began hosting Icestock, the world's southernmost music festival 37 years ago
The festival has been held at the American station each year since 1989. Alongside Midwinter Day and Antarctica Day, it forms part of the continent's small calendar of shared observances.
1988Countries led by New Zealand and the United States adopted the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities 38 years ago
Negotiated in analogy to the 1980 fisheries treaty, the convention would have set rules for mining in Antarctica. It was never implemented, states opting instead for an environmental protocol.
1987–1992Greenpeace maintained a base on Ross Island to press for a World Park Antarctica 39 years ago
The pressure group occupied a station for five years as part of its campaign to have the continent designated a world park. The campaign contributed to the political climate that produced the Madrid Protocol.
1987Signatory states adopted the Montreal Protocol restricting ozone-depleting substances 39 years ago
The protocol curbed emissions of the chemicals responsible for the Antarctic ozone hole. Ozone levels over the continent are projected to return to 1980s values by the 2060s.
1985British scientists at Halley Research Station discovered the Antarctic ozone hole 41 years ago
Working on data gathered on the Brunt Ice Shelf, they identified a large area of severely depleted ozone over the continent. The finding, following studies begun in the 1970s, transformed global atmospheric science and policy.
July 1983Vostok Station recorded the lowest natural air temperature on Earth, −89.2 °C 43 years ago
The Russian station's reading of −89.2 °C on 21 July 1983 remains the official global minimum. It confirmed the interior plateau, much of it above 3,000 m, as the coldest environment on the planet.
1980Treaty parties brought the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources into force 46 years ago
The convention regulates Southern Ocean fisheries with the aim of preserving ecological relationships rather than single stocks. It became the model for later resource negotiations on the continent.
1979Air New Zealand lost 257 lives in the Mount Erebus disaster 47 years ago
A sightseeing aircraft crashed into Mount Erebus, killing everyone on board. The disaster ended overland Antarctic sightseeing flights from Australia and New Zealand until Qantas resumed overflights in the mid-1990s.
January 1978Emilio Marcos Palma became the first person born on the Antarctic mainland 48 years ago
He was born at Esperanza Base, an Argentine Army station, on 7 January 1978. Argentina used the birth to underline its presence and territorial ambitions on the continent.
1969Six women were flown to the South Pole as a publicity stunt 57 years ago
The flight brought the first women to the geographic South Pole. It signalled the slow opening of Antarctic operations to female personnel.
1966The whaling industry ended its Antarctic whaling era 60 years ago
Whaling sustained a South Georgia population ranging from over 1,000 in summer to some 200 in winter until operations ceased in 1966. Its end shifted the region's economy towards science and, later, tourism.
1964Treaty parties adopted the first international agreement to protect Antarctic biodiversity 62 years ago
The agreement was the first instrument dedicated to safeguarding the continent's wildlife, long exploited by sealers and whalers. It set a precedent for the conservation regime built under the Antarctic Treaty System.
1959Twelve nations signed the Antarctic Treaty 67 years ago
To form a legal framework for national activities on the continent, the Antarctic Treaty was negotiated and signed in 1959 by twelve original signatories, entering into force in 1961 and reserving the continent for peaceful science. It neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims, and together with related agreements forms the Antarctic Treaty System, which suspends new claims. A further 42 countries have since acceded, and by 2022 29 held consultative decision-making status through demonstrated research activity. The signing is commemorated each 1 December as Antarctica Day.
1957Tour operators began taking tourists to Antarctica 69 years ago
Visitors have travelled to the continent since 1957, initially including overland sightseeing flights from Australia and New Zealand. Tourism grew to over 74,000 visitors in the 2019–2020 season, of whom 18,500 remained aboard cruise ships.
October 1956US Navy group under George J. Dufek landed an aircraft at the South Pole 70 years ago
On 31 October 1956 the American party became the first to reach the pole since 1912, arriving by air. Aerial access made the permanent occupation of the pole and the modern research station network possible.
1940s–50sAntarctica experienced an upsurge in scientific research 86 years ago
Following World War II the continent saw a surge in scientific activity, with a number of countries setting up year-round and seasonal stations, camps and refuges to support research, notably during the International Geophysical Year of 1957–58.
1937Ingrid Christensen became the first woman to step onto the Antarctic mainland 89 years ago
Christensen came ashore on the continent in 1937, after Caroline Mikkelsen had landed on an Antarctic island in 1935. The landings marked the beginning of women's presence in Antarctic exploration.
37 not shown
Historical Context
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s understanding the origins and evolution of the modern nation
Capital
—
Government·1959
Antarctic Treaty Summary…
Independence
—
GDP (PPP)
—
BackgroundBack to top ↑
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands or an area of ocean. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century, but generally the area saw little human activity. Following World War II, however, the continent experienced an upsurge in scientific research. A number of countries have set up a range of year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges to support scientific research in Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Geography
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s territory, resources and strategic position
Area
14Mkm²
Land Boundaries
0km
Coastline
18Kkm
Maritime Claims
Australia, Chile, and Arg…
Land Use
0%
Location and areaBack to top ↑
Location
continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Geographic coordinates
90 00 S, 0 00 E
Map references
Antarctic Region
Area
total:14 million sq km
land:14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent of Europe
Area — comparative
slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Land boundaries
0 km
see entry on Disputes - international
Coastline
17,968 km
Maritime claims
Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other countries; 21 of 28 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US have reserved the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the Disputes - international entry
Terrain and resourcesBack to top ↑
Terrain
about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Natural resources
iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small noncommercial quantities; none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by commercial fisheries
Land use
arable land:0%
permanent crops:0%
other:100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (2011)
Settlement and hazardsBack to top ↑
Natural hazards
katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf
Geography note
the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable, 98% of land area is ice covered
OtherBack to top ↑
Elevation extremes
lowest point:Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m
highest point:Vinson Massif 4,897 m
the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater
Environment - current issues
in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light passing through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an Antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming
Environment
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s environmental conditions, resources and national resilience
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
—
Methane Emissions
—
Particulate Matter Emissions
—
Total Water Withdrawal
—
Waste and Recycling
—
Conditions and issuesBack to top ↑
Climate
severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
Critical Technology
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s technology frontiers and the pursuit of national advantage
Technology systemsBack to top ↑
GINC data
Capability-group ratings for Critical Technology are part of the GINC National Capability Framework rather than the country factbook. They are published in the National Capability index, and the per-capability detail lives on the capability pages.
Space programmeBack to top ↑
🇦🇶Antarctica
Objects Launched into Space
Annual number of objects launched into outer space, 1950–2025. Antarctica is highlighted; other major launchers are shown in grey.
AntarcticaOther major launchers
01K2K3K4K
1950198020002025
Source. UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (2026).
🇦🇶Antarctica
Cumulative Objects Launched
Cumulative number of objects launched into outer space, 1950–2025. Antarctica is highlighted; other major launchers are shown in grey.
AntarcticaOther major launchers
05K10K15K20K
1950198020002025
Source. UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (2026).
Strategic Infrastructure
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s energy, connectivity and the material foundations of capability
Airports·2013
23
Railways
—
Ports
—
Electricity Access
—
Internet Users
—
TransportBack to top ↑
Airports
23 (2013)
Heliports
53
all year-round and seasonal stations operated by National Antarctic Programs stations have some kind of helicopter landing facilities, prepared (helipads) or unprepared (2012)
Transport note
US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E) and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"); all ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states parties to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of latitude south have to be complied with (see "Legal System"); The Hydrographic Commission on Antarctica (HCA), a commission of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), is responsible for hydrographic surveying and nautical charting matters in Antarctic Treaty area; it coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate and appropriate charts and other aids to navigation in support of safety of navigation in region; membership of HCA is open to any IHO Member State whose government has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and which contributes resources or data to IHO Chart coverage of the area
Digital connectivityBack to top ↑
Internet country code
.aq
OtherBack to top ↑
Telephone system
general assessment:local systems at some research stations
domestic:commercial cellular networks operating in a small number of locations
international:country code - none allocated; via satellite (including mobile Inmarsat and Iridium systems) to and from all research stations, ships, aircraft, and most field parties (2007)
Internet hosts
7,764 (2012)
Airports - with unpaved runways
total:23
over 3,047 m:3
2,438 to 3,047 m:5
1,524 to 2,437 m:1
914 to 1,523 m:8
under 914 m:6 (2013)
Ports and terminals
McMurdo Station; most coastal stations have sparse and intermittent offshore anchorages; a few stations have basic wharf facilities
National Security
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s force, intelligence and the defence of the nation
Armed Forces Personnel
—
Military Personnel
—
Military Spending
—
Spending (% of GDP)
—
Armed Forces (% of Labour Force)
—
Deployments and threatsBack to top ↑
Military note
the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Human Capital
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s population, health and the skills that sustain capability
Median Age
—
Life Expectancy at Birth
—
Total Fertility Rate
—
DemographyBack to top ↑
Population
no indigenous inhabitants, but there are both permanent and summer-only staffed research stations
29 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, operate through their National Antarctic Program a number of seasonal-only (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty); the population engaging in and supporting science or managing and protecting the Antarctic region varies from approximately 4,400 in summer to 1,100 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel, including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research, are present in the waters of the treaty region; peak summer (December-February) population - 4,490 total; Argentina 667, Australia 200, Australia and Romania jointly 13, Belgium 20, Brazil 40, Bulgaria 18, Chile 359, China 90, Czech Republic 20, Ecuador 26, Finland 20, France 125, France and Italy jointly 60, Germany 90, India 65, Italy 102, Japan 125, South Korea 70, NZ 85, Norway 44, Peru 28, Poland 40, Russia 429, South Africa 80, Spain 50, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 217, US 1,293, Uruguay 70 (2008-2009); winter (June-August) station population - 1,106 total; Argentina 176, Australia 62, Brazil 12, Chile 114, China 29, France 26, France and Italy jointly 13, Germany 9, India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 18, NZ 10, Norway 7, Poland 12, Russia 148, South Africa 10, Ukraine 12, UK 37, US 337, Uruguay 9 (2009); research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60 degrees south latitude) by National Antarctic Programs; year-round stations - 40 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 6, China 2, France 1, France and Italy jointly 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (2009); a range of seasonal-only (summer) stations, camps, and refuges - Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Chile, China, Czech Republic, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, Romania (with Australia), Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, UK, US, and Uruguay (2008-2009); in addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (May 2009 est.)
OtherBack to top ↑
Disputes - international
the Antarctic Treaty freezes, and most states do not recognize, the land and maritime territorial claims made by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom (some overlapping) for three-fourths of the continent; the US and Russia reserve the right to make claims; no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west; the International Whaling Commission created a sanctuary around the entire continent to deter catches by countries claiming to conduct scientific whaling; Australia has established a similar preserve in the waters around its territorial claim
Governance and Integrity
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s institutions, law and the integrity of the state
Government·1959
Antarctic Treaty Summary…
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State structureBack to top ↑
Country name
conventional long form:none
conventional short form:Antarctica
Government type
Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic region is governed by a system known as the Antarctic Treaty System; the system includes: 1. the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, which establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica, 2. Recommendations and Measures adopted at meetings of Antarctic Treaty countries, 3. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972), 4. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980), and 5. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991); the 33rd Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in Punta del Este, Uruguay in May 2010; at these periodic meetings, decisions are made by consensus (not by vote) of all consultative member nations; by April 2010, there were 48 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 20 non-consultative; consultative (decision-making) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 21 non-claimant nations; the US and Russia have reserved the right to make claims; the US does not recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; the years in parentheses indicate when a consultative member-nation acceded to the Treaty and when it was accepted as a consultative member, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and the UK; nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1975/1983), Bulgaria (1978/1998), China (1983/1985), Ecuador (1987/1990), Finland (1984/1989), Germany (1979/1981), India (1983/1983), Italy (1981/1987), Japan, South Korea (1986/1989), Netherlands (1967/1990), Peru (1981/1989), Poland (1961/1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1982/1988), Sweden (1984/1988), Ukraine (1992/2004), Uruguay (1980/1985), and the US; non-consultative members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Belarus (2006), Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1962/1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Monaco (2008), Papua New Guinea (1981), Portugal (2010), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1962/1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1996), and Venezuela (1999); note - Czechoslovakia acceded to the Treaty in 1962 and separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993;//Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments; a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through six specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area protection and management and 6) liability arising from environmental emergencies; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina
Legal systemBack to top ↑
Legal system
Antarctica is administered through annual meetings - known as Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings - which include consultative member nations, non-consultative member nations, observer organizations, and expert organizations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; more generally, access to the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty; note - US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities unless authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit its website at www.nsf.gov
Information and Influence
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s identity, media and the projection of influence
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Production and Innovation
🇦🇶 Antarctica’s output, industry and the engine of prosperity
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OtherBack to top ↑
Economy - overview
Scientific undertakings rather than commercial pursuits are the predominate human activity in Antarctica. Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries, targeting three main species - Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides and D. mawsoni), mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari), and krill (Euphausia superba) - reported landing 141,147 metric tons in 2008-09 (1 July - 30 June). (Estimated fishing is from the area covered by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area.) Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (also known as Chilean sea bass), is a serious problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 37,858 tourists visited the Antarctic Treaty area in the 2008-09 Antarctic summer, down from the 46,265 visitors in 2007-08 (estimates provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO); this does not include passengers on overflights). Nearly all of them were passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips during the summer.
Contents
GINC Indices
Foundations
Capability Domains